RAPID project

5 Jan 2023 project

Latest datasets are available from the project site.

AMOC

Eleanor Frajka-Williams

Professor of Ocean Dynamics in a Changing Climate

I am a physical oceanographer who uses ocean observations to investigate ocean dynamics and circulation in a changing climate. I have a particular interest in problems spanning scales (from micro- to large-scale) or spheres (biogeosphere, cryosphere, atmosphere), and in methods that leverage traditional observations with new platforms and satellite data.

Publications

Climate change impacts on ocean circulation relevant to the UK and Ireland

Ocean circulation, including ocean currents and systems of ocean currents, such as ocean gyres and the meridional overturning …

Gerard D. McCarthy , K. Burmeister , Stuart A. Cunningham , A. Düsterhus , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , and others

February 2023 Marine Climate Change Impacts Partnership

Climate change impacts on ocean circulation relevant to the UK and Ireland

Climate-Relevant Ocean Transport Measurements in the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans

B Berx , Denis L. Volkov , Johanna Baehr , Molly O. Baringer , Peter Brandt , K. Burmeister , Stuart A. Cunningham , MF de Jong , Laura de Steur , S Dong , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , others

January 2022 Oceanogr.

Climate-Relevant Ocean Transport Measurements in the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans

A dynamically based method for estimating the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation at 26°N from satellite altimetry

A method for estimating 26°N overturning from time-varying satellite altimetry and time-averaged boundary profiles of dynamic height.

Alejandra Sanchez-Franks , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Ben I. Moat , David A. Smeed

January 2021 Oc. Sci.

A dynamically based method for estimating the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation at 26°N from satellite altimetry

Revisiting AMOC transport estimates from observations and models

A model-based evaluation of how the choice of referencing geostrophic velocities at AMOC transport mooring arrays can influence the resultant transport estimate, with a focus on the MOVE latitude of 16°N and the RAPID latitude of 26.5°N.

Gokhan Danabasoglu , F. S. Castruccio , R. J. Small , R. Tomas , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Matthias Lankhorst

January 2021 Geophys. Res. Lett.

Revisiting AMOC transport estimates from observations and models

Atlantic meridional overturning circulation and associated heat transport

Update on the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) in the annual State of the Climate report. This issue includes estimates using XBT data compared against mooring-derived transport estimates.

Denis L. Volkov , Chris S. Meinen , others , Eleanor Frajka-Williams

January 2020 Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.

Atlantic meridional overturning circulation and associated heat transport

Pending recovery in the strength of the meridional overturning circulation at 26°N

The strength of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) at 26∘ N has now been continuously measured by the RAPID array …

Ben I. Moat , David A. Smeed , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Damien G. Desbruyeres , Claudie Beaulieu , William E. Johns , Darren Rayner , Alejandra Sanchez-Franks , Molly O. Baringer , Denis L. Volkov , Laura C. Jackson , Harry L. Bryden

January 2020 Oc. Sci.

Pending recovery in the strength of the meridional overturning circulation at 26°N

Past, present, and future variations of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is a key mechanism of the global coupled ocean-atmosphere climate system, …

Delphine Lobelle

October 2019 University of Southampton, Ocean and Earth Science PhD theses

Past, present, and future variations of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation

Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation: Observed Transport and Variability

An overview of the status of the AMOC observing system as of 2019, including arrays in the North and South Atlantic, methodology summary and prognosis for the future.

Eleanor Frajka-Williams , and others

June 2019 Frontiers in Mar. Sci.

Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation: Observed Transport and Variability

Using GRACE and in situ bottom pressure recorders to evaluate external transports at 26°N

A demonstration of how GRACE-satellite estimates of ocean bottom pressure can be used to stitch together in situ bottom pressure records at 26°N, alleviating the need to detrend the observed bottom pressure. However, the method does not allow determination of the trend over the full period; if the GRACE trend over the full period (2004-2016) is applied, then it implies a trend in the compensation transports from 26°N which has the opposite sign as the compensation transport derived from the RAPID 26°N mooring array.

Emma Worthington , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , G. D. McCarthy

January 2019 J. Geophys. Res.

Loop Current variability as trigger of coherent Gulf Stream transport anomalies

Joel J.-M. Hirschi , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Adam T. Blaker , Bablu Sinha , P. Hyder , Andrew Coward , others

January 2019 J. Phys. Ocean.

Loop Current variability as trigger of coherent Gulf Stream transport anomalies

Structure and variability of the Antilles Current at 26.5°N

Chris S. Meinen , William E. Johns , Ben I. Moat , Ryan H. Smith , Elizabeth M. Johns , Darren Rayner , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Rigoberto F. Garcia , Silvia L. Garzoli

January 2019 J. Geophys. Res.

Estimating the Freshwater Flux from the Greenland Ice Sheet Workshop Report, American Geophysical Union, 2018

The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) has been observed continuously at 26° N since April 2004. The AMOC and its …

David Sutherland , Fiamma Straneo , Twila Moon , Isabela Le Bras , FrajkaWilliams-Eleanor , Jonathan Bamber , Ginny Catania , Patrick Heimbach , Rebecca Jackson , Leigh Stearns

December 2018 Arctic Data Center

Coherent modulation of the sea-level annual cycle in the United States by Atlantic Rossby waves

Changes in the sea-level annual cycle (SLAC) can have profound impacts on coastal areas, including increased flooding risk and …

Francisco M. Calafat , Thomas Wahl , Fredrik Lindsten , Joanne Williams , Eleanor Frajka-Williams

December 2018 Nature Comm.

Coherent modulation of the sea-level annual cycle in the United States by Atlantic Rossby waves

Fast response of deep ocean circulation to mid-latitude winds in the Atlantic

In situ observations of transbasin deep ocean transports at 26◦N show variability on monthly to decadal timescales (2004–2015). …

Eleanor Frajka-Williams , F. Landerer , T. Lee

April 2018 Geophys. Res. Lett. (rejected)

Fast response of deep ocean circulation to mid-latitude winds in the Atlantic

The North Atlantic Ocean is in a state of reduced overturning

The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) is responsible for a variable and climatically important northward transport of …

David A. Smeed , Simon A. Josey , William E. Johns , Ben I. Moat , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Darren Rayner , Chris S. Meinen , Molly O. Baringer , Harry L. Bryden , Gerard D. McCarthy

January 2018 Geophys. Res. Lett.

The North Atlantic Ocean is in a state of reduced overturning

Coherent circulation changes in the Deep North Atlantic from 16°N and 26°N transport arrays

The meridional overturning circulation (MOC) has been measured by boundary arrays in the Atlantic since 2000. Over the past decade of …

Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Matthias Lankhorst , J. Koelling , Uwe Send

January 2018 J. Geophys. Res.

Coherent circulation changes in the Deep North Atlantic from 16°N and 26°N transport arrays

The Accuracy of Estimates of the Overturning Circulation from Basin Wide Mooring Arrays

Previous modeling and observational studies have established that it is possible to accurately monitor the Atlantic Meridional …

Bablu Sinha , David A. Smeed , Gerard D. McCarthy , Ben I. Moat , Simon A. Josey , Joel J.-M. Hirschi , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Adam T. Blaker , G. Madec

January 2018 Prog. Oceangr.

The Accuracy of Estimates of the Overturning Circulation from Basin Wide Mooring Arrays

Variability and Transport Methodology of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation at 26°N

The importance of The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) resides in its associated poleward movement of heat (Bryden et …

Neela Morarji

December 2017 University of Southampton, Ocean and Earth Science PhD theses

Variability and Transport Methodology of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation at 26°N

Observed basin-scale response of the North Atlantic meridional overturning circulation to wind stress forcing

The response of the North Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (MOC) to wind stress forcing is investigated from an …

Shane Elipot , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Chris W. Hughes , Sofia Olhede , Matthias Lankhorst

January 2017 J. Clim

Observed basin-scale response of the North Atlantic meridional overturning circulation to wind stress forcing

Drivers of exceptionally cold North Atlantic Ocean temperatures and their link to the 2015 European heat wave

The North Atlantic and Europe experienced two extreme climate events in 2015: exceptionally cold ocean surface temperatures and a …

Aurelie D. Duchez , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Simon A. Josey , D. Gwyn Evans , Jeremy P. Grist , R. Marsh , Gerard D. McCarthy , Bablu Sinha , David I. Berry , Joel J.-M. Hirschi

July 2016 Env. Res. Lett.

Drivers of exceptionally cold North Atlantic Ocean temperatures and their link to the 2015 European heat wave

Major Variations in Sub-Tropical North Atlantic Heat Transport at Short (5 day) Timescales and their Causes

Variability in the North Atlantic ocean heat transport at 26.5°N on short (5 day) timescales is identified and contrasted with …

Ben I. Moat , Simon A. Josey , Bablu Sinha , Adam T. Blaker , David A. Smeed , Gerard D. McCarthy , William E. Johns , Joel J.-M. Hirschi , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Darren Rayner , Aurelie D. Duchez , Andrew Coward

April 2016 J. Geophys. Res.

Major Variations in Sub-Tropical North Atlantic Heat Transport at Short (5 day) Timescales and their Causes

Compensation between meridional flow components of the Atlantic MOC at 26°N

From ten years of observations of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (MOC) at 26° N (2004–2014), we revisit the question …

Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Chris S. Meinen , William E. Johns , David A. Smeed , Aurelie D. Duchez , Adam J. Lawrence , David A. Cuthbertson , Harry L. Bryden , Gerard D. McCarthy , Molly O. Baringer , Darren Rayner , Ben I. Moat

April 2016 Oc. Sci.

Compensation between meridional flow components of the Atlantic MOC at 26°N

Generation of Internal Waves by Eddies Impinging on the Western Boundary of the North Atlantic

Despite the major role played by mesoscale eddies in redistributing the energy of the large-scale circulation, our understanding of …

Louis Clement , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Katy L. Sheen , J. Alex Brearley , Alberto C. Naveira Garabato

April 2016 J. Phys. Ocean.

Generation of Internal Waves by Eddies Impinging on the Western Boundary of the North Atlantic

Estimating the Atlantic MOC at 26°N using satellite altimetry and cable measurements

A statistical relationship between satellite sea surface height (SSH) and observed transports at 26°N is used to build a proxy for the AMOC transport since 1992. The method relies on a strong relationship between (1) the interannual variability of spatially-smoothed SSH at the western boundary of the Atlantic and (2) the RAPID 26°N estimate of upper mid-ocean transport (UMO, top ~1100m) across the Atlantic. Explained variance is very high, but the method assumes stationarity in the relationship between SSH and UMO, which would likely be violated on longer timescales associated with e.g., deep watermass change.

Eleanor Frajka-Williams

April 2015 Geophys. Res. Lett.

Estimating the Atlantic MOC at 26°N using satellite altimetry and cable measurements

Measuring the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation at 26°N

Methodology and error analysis for the RAPID 26°N estimates of the AMOC transport.

Gerard D. McCarthy , David A. Smeed , Williams E. Johns , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Ben I. Moat , Darren Rayner , Molly O. Baringer , Chris S. Meinen , Harry L. Bryden

January 2015 Prog. Oceangr.

Vertical structure of eddies and Rossby waves and their effect on the Atlantic MOC at 26.5°N

The meridional overturning circulation (MOC) at inline image in the Atlantic has a standard deviation of 4.9 Sv and contains large …

Louis Clement , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Zoltan B. Szuts , Stuart A. Cunningham

September 2014 J. Geophys. Res.

A new index for the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation

The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) has received considerable attention, motivated by its major role in the global …

Aurelie D. Duchez , Stuart A. Cunningham , Joel J.-M. Hirschi , Adam T. Blaker , Harry L. Bryden , C. Atkinson , Gerard D. McCarthy , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Darren Rayner , David A. Smeed

September 2014 J. Clim

A new index for the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation

The Atlantic overturning circulation: More evidence of variability and links to climate

A unique feature of the Atlantic Ocean is the presence of regions in the Labrador Sea and Nordic Seas where surface water can convect …

James Carton , Stuart A. Cunningham , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Y. O. Kwon , David P. Marshall , Rym Msadek

August 2014 Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.

The Atlantic overturning circulation: More evidence of variability and links to climate

The effect of eddies and Rossby waves on the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation at 26.5◦N and their decay at the western boundary.

The meridional overturning circulation (MOC) at 26.5◦N in the Atlantic has a standard devia- tion of 4.9 Sv and contains large …

Louis Clement

July 2014 University of Southampton, Ocean and Earth Science PhD theses

The effect of eddies and Rossby waves on the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation at 26.5◦N and their decay at the western boundary.

Seasonal to interannual variability in density around the Canary Islands and their influence on the AMOC at 26°N

The meridional interior flow obtained from the RAPID array is determined by horizontal density fluctuations at the eastern and western …

Aurelie D. Duchez , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Natalia Castro , Joel J.-M. Hirschi , Andrew Coward

February 2014 J. Geophys. Res.

Seasonal to interannual variability in density around the Canary Islands and their influence on the AMOC at 26°N

The observed North Atlantic MOC, its meridional coherence and ocean bottom pressure

Analyses of meridional transport time series from the Rapid Climate Change–Meridional Overturning Circulation (RAPID MOC) array at 26°N …

Shane Elipot , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Chris W. Hughes , Josh Willis

February 2014 J. Phys. Ocean.

The observed North Atlantic MOC, its meridional coherence and ocean bottom pressure

Meridional overturning circulation observations in the North Atlantic Ocean

Molly O. Baringer , Gerard D. McCarthy , Josh Willis , Matthias Lankhorst , David A. Smeed , Uwe Send , Darren Rayner , William E. Johns , Chris S. Meinen , Stuart A. Cunningham , Torsten O. Kanzow , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Jochem Marotzke

January 2014 Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.

Meridional overturning circulation observations in the North Atlantic Ocean

Observed decline of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation 2004 to 2012

The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) has been observed continuously at 26° N since April 2004. The AMOC and its …

David A. Smeed , Gerard D. McCarthy , Stuart A. Cunningham , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Darren Rayner , William E. Johns , Chris S. Meinen , Molly O. Baringer , Ben I. Moat , Aurelie D. Duchez , Harry L. Bryden

January 2014 Oc. Sci.

Atlantic MOC slowdown cooled the subtropical ocean

Observations show that the upper 2 km of the subtropical North Atlantic Ocean cooled throughout 2010 and remained cold until at least …

Stuart A. Cunningham , Chris D. Roberts , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , William E. Johns , W. Hobbs , M. D. Palmer , Darren Rayner , David A. Smeed , Gerard D. McCarthy

November 2013 Geophys. Res. Lett.

Atlantic MOC slowdown cooled the subtropical ocean

Atmosphere drives observed interannual variability of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation at 26.5N

The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) has been observed at 26.5°N since 2004. During 2009/2010, there was a transient …

Chris D. Roberts , J. Waters , K. A. Peterson , M. Palmer , Gerard D. McCarthy , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , K. Haines , D. J. Lea , M. J. Martin , D. Storkey , E. W. Blockley , H. Zuo

September 2013 Geophys. Res. Lett.

Atmosphere drives observed interannual variability of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation at 26.5N

Observed and simulated variability of the AMOC at 26°N and 41°N

Time series of the observational estimate of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (AMOC) have recently become available, but …

Charlotte Mielke , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Johanna Baehr

February 2013 Geophys. Res. Lett.

Observed and simulated variability of the AMOC at 26°N and 41°N

Eddy impacts on the Florida Current

The Gulf Stream in the Atlantic carries warm water northwards and forms both the return closure of the subtropical gyre as well as the …

Eleanor Frajka-Williams , William E. Johns , Chris S. Meinen , Lisa M. Beal , Stuart A. Cunningham

January 2013 Geophys. Res. Lett.

Meridional overturning circulation and heat transport observations in the Atlantic Ocean

Molly O. Baringer , William E. Johns , Gerard D. McCarthy , Josh Willis , Silvia L. Garzoli , Matthias Lankhorst , Chris S. Meinen , Uwe Send , W. R. Hobbs , Stuart A. Cunningham , Darren Rayner , David A. Smeed , Torsten Kanzow , Patrick Heimbach , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , A. Macdonald , S. Dong , Jochem Marotzke

January 2013 Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.

Meridional overturning circulation and heat transport observations in the Atlantic Ocean

Observed Interannual Variability of the Atlantic MOC at 26.5°N

The Atlantic meridional overturning circulation (MOC) plays a critical role in the climate system and is responsible for much of the …

Gerard D. McCarthy , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , William E. Johns , Molly O. Baringer , Chris S. Meinen , Harry L. Bryden , Darren Rayner , Aurelie D. Duchez , Chris D. Roberts , Stuart A. Cunningham

October 2012 Geophys. Res. Lett.

Observed Interannual Variability of the Atlantic MOC at 26.5°N

Cruise Report #07: RV Knorr Cruise KN200-4, 13 Apr-03 May 2011. RAPID Mooring Cruise.

This report describes the mooring operations conducted during RV Knorr cruise KN200-4 between 13 April and 3 May 2011. These mooring …

Eleanor Frajka-Williams , William E. Johns

January 2012 National Oceanography Centre Cruise Report cruise report

Cruise Report #07: RV Knorr Cruise KN200-4, 13 Apr-03 May 2011. RAPID Mooring Cruise.

Meridional overturning circulation observations in the subtropical North Atlantic.

Molly O. Baringer , Stuart A. Cunningham , Chris S. Meinen , Silvia L. Garzoli , Josh Willis , Matthias Lankhorst , W. R. Hobbs , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Torsten O. Kanzow , Darren Rayner , William E. Johns , Jochem Marotzke

January 2012 Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.

Meridional overturning circulation observations in the subtropical North Atlantic.

Variability of Antarctic Bottom Water at 24.5°N in the Atlantic

A recent hydrographic section at 24.5°N in the Atlantic and 6 months of observations from a moored array show that Antarctic Bottom …

Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Stuart A. Cunningham , Harry L. Bryden , Brian A. King

November 2011 J. Geophys. Res.

Variability of Antarctic Bottom Water at 24.5°N in the Atlantic

RAPID: Monitoring the meridional overturning circulation at 26°N

A summary of the RAPID 26°N results through 2011.

Eleanor Frajka-Williams

June 2011 Ocean Challenge

Monitoring the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation

The original RAPID methodology, now updated in McCarthy et al. 2015.

Darren Rayner , Joel J.-M. Hirschi , Torsten Kanzow , William E. Johns , Paul G. Wright , Eleanor Frajka-Williams , Harry L. Bryden , Christopher S. Meinen , Molly O. Baringer , Jochem Marotzke , Lisa M. Beal , Stuart A. Cunningham

January 2011 Deep Sea Res. II

Monitoring the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation

Meridional Overturning Circulation Observations in the Subtropical North Atlantic

January 2011 Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc.

RAPID project

Eleanor Frajka-Williams

Professor of Ocean Dynamics in a Changing Climate

Related

Publications